Providing Affordable Housing: Modern methods of construction

Providing Affordable Housing: Modern methods of construction So called Modern Methods of construction have been put forward as a solution for solving the problem of providing affordable housing in sustainable communities for the UK. In a report for senior managers of a major housing development company propose and justify modern methods of construction to replace traditional construction production techniques. There is growing concern in UK that housing is becoming more and more expensive. There are a number of concerns among experts that the construction industry as a whole is underperforming. This has been particularly emphasised in the Egan report (Egan, 1998), where it is also mentioned that the initial opportunities for improvements in house building exists in the social housing sector. Another concern that is very much in the lime light recently is sustainability issues. The European community and UK have agreed of environmental and energy targets that are very ambitious. Houses in UK have traditionally been built in traditional materials such as brick and concrete. The construction material and construction techniques have not changed much in centuries, despite the high level of construction know-how that exists in UK. Most of the modern construction techniques are use for high-profile prestige buildings and commercial buildings. The housing sector does not seem to have benefited from the modern methods available. This report aims at fanning-out the various modern methods of construction that can benefit the housing sector in many ways. Most of these modern methods are already used quite successfully in areas other than housing. The target will be to prove how, by means of modern construction techniques, affordable and sustainable housing can be developed. Sustainable Construction Sustainability generally means sustained ability. It means being able for longer. It means being able to benefit from resources for longer, without endangering the depletion of the resources. Sustainable construction is an approach to construction that makes optimal use of resources throughout the lifespan of a building. This includes the resources utilised for the construction of the building, its operation and maintenance, and its eventual disposal. Resources here relate to sources of material, energy, space and money. Those are the basic requirements for a building. It also makes economic sense to use as less resources as possible. So, achieving sustainability should not cost extra to the client, although it may cost extra initially to build the building. A typical building uses many times more resources during its lifespan than during its construction. So globally, it will be in the clients interest to go for sustainable methods. Sustainable construction (Stern and Knapp, 1993) could also be distinct as those buildings that have minimum adverse impacts on the built and natural environment, in terms of the buildings themselves, their immediate surroundings and the broader regional and global setting. The rational use of natural resources and appropriate management of the building stock will contribute to saving scarce resources, reducing energy consumption (energy conservation), and improving environmental quality. Environmental Approach A general strategy for environmental conscious design (Boontra, 1997) consists of three main steps: Reduce the material demand Any client, investor or governmental body should thoroughly evaluate the need for a new building activity by investigating the possibilities of reuse and renovating existing buildings. Designers should design a building as efficiently as possible by minimising the amount of resources needed. This can be done by optimising both the floor plan and construction. Application of renewable and recycled sources By application of renewable and recycled sources the life cycle of building materials can be closed. Designers should also allow for future recycling. Designing a building for dismantling and not for demolition is one approach. Select materials with the lowest environmental impact The environmental impact of materials is caused during a buildings complete lifetime. Typical environmental issues are raw materials, embodied energy, emissions, hindrance, waste, recycling, repair, lifetime. Throughout the report, it will be demonstrated that the modern methods proposed will respond positively to the above environmental criteria. Energy Approach Buildings account for the largest proportion of energy consumption in most western societies. In UK for example, (Nicholls, 2002) energy consumption in buildings account for 45% of the total UK energy consumption. Energy is widely produced by burning fossil fuel such as petrol and coal. It is also used by nuclear fission of Uranium. Both processes are very harmful to the environment. Why are Modern Methods Important for a Major Housing Developer? Sustainability Previously, sustainability was associated with environmental issues. However, in recent years it has been recognised that one cannot preserve environment at the expense of socio-economic progress. Sustainability is now being redefined in many circles as a balance of: Economic stable economic growth and employment Environment protection of environment and prudent use of natural resources Social social progress for everyone For these reasons, it is not only important that construction is clean and energy efficient, but it is also important to consider other factors such as the impact of the construction on its immediate neighbourhood and the society in general. The cost of construction has a direct impact on the cost of the housing. It is important to make housing economically viable and affordable without cutting down on our margin. Legal Developments in Sustainability There have been several recent legal developments in the area of sustainability that will have a definite future impact on our operations on the UK housing market. Most of these legal developments follow the 1997 Kyoto Earth Summit and are in line with the current governments emission and energy targets. The main developments are: UK Sustainable Construction Strategy 2000 UK Energy White Paper 2003 Sustainable Building Task Group 2003 Some of the impacts of these legal developments are already being felt. For instance, Part E and Part L of Building Regulations are already being revised and will be more demanding in terms of thermal and acoustic performance of buildings. There are several assessment methods being developed to measure quantify and rate the performance of a building in terms of how sustainable it is, and many of these measure will be taken into account for planning permission purposes. One of them is the BREEAM rating, developed by the Building Research Establishment. The BREEAM is an environmental assessment for offices, industrial and retail buildings. It consists of a checklist with scores for energy use, transport, water use, pollution, materials, land use etc. It has four ratings: pass, good, very good and excellent. Another such assessment method is the Eco-Homes, which is applied to housing sector only and therefore more relevant to us. The Sustainable Building Task Group 2003 has put forward a recommendation for a Code of Sustainable Building, which is based on the BREEAM rating but is simpler. The Code has the full backing of the government and is currently compulsory for social housing sector. Although it is not compulsory for our market yet, it is more than likely that it will become so in a near future. Another assessment method that may become important in the future is the WRAP, which measures the recycle content of a building. As for now, any building must have a minimum of 10% of recycle content. Most buildings will easily meet that requirement, even those built by the traditional methods. However, it is the intention of the authorities to steadily increase that 10% requirement in the coming years and it will become increasingly difficult to meet by traditional builds. WRAP is critical for planning permission and it is in the long term interest of the company that we start using methods that will introduce higher recycle contents in our housing developments. Health and Safety Health and Safety is becoming more and more important for the government and also for private clients. The upcoming CDM regulations 2006 will have major changes that put a lot more responsibility on the clients. Consequently, it can be expected that client will be putting health and safety high in their agenda and will chose their developers and contractors with that in mind. Also the HSE is being more and more demanding about the standard of health and safety and work and checks are done on a regular basis on sites across UK. It is therefore important to be proactive and take a holistic approach towards health and safety. Instead of simply supplying more boots and helmets to site, it will be wiser to adopt methods that are inherently safer. Traditional Methods Typically, a housing development will either consist of some blocks of flats with parking space or a series of 2 to 3 storey houses, depending on the locality and the client. In both cases, the construction process is the same, although some differences in scale of operations may occur. Substructure After the planning and survey stages, the first step in the construction process is the substructure. The substructure is that part of the building that is below the ground level. Its purpose is to safely transmit all forces to the ground. Traditionally, the substructure will consist of a series of pad foundations, strip footings, basements or even piles. Most of the old houses have basements whereas newer houses tend to have strip footings. Taller buildings such as apartments or where the building is on weaker grounds, piles may be required. All those foundations are generally formed by digging a hole in the ground and filling it with concrete. The shape, size and depth of the hole depend on the type of foundation being built. Foundations are labour-intensive and time-consuming work. All of the work has to be done on site, exposed to weather conditions. It also produces significant amount of noise and dust during the digging of the ground. Once the trenches or holes are filled with concrete, the site ends up with an excess of soil from the hole. Superstructure The superstructure is the visible part of the building, built on the foundation. The structure for houses will consist of building up brick walls from the ground, brick by brick. Each wall will consist of two leaves of brick with a gap in-between for insulation. The internal floors are generally made of heavy timber joists supporting secondary timber members and finally a plank topping, all nailed together and supported off the brick walls. The brick wall construction will continue until the roof level is reached. At the roof level, a timber roof is built in a way similar to the floor. Recently, concrete columns and beams have been used along with the brick walls. Floors and roofs in newer construction tend to be on concrete, cast in-situ on formwork, supported off the concrete frame members. These methods are very time-consuming and labour intensive and almost all the work has to be done on site. Partitions and Finishes The internal partitions are either timber frames with ply-wood on each side, or single-leaf brick walls built in the same way as the external walls. Stairs are generally of wood. Services The space heating, electricity, air-conditioning and ventilation are all built to suit the building in place. Modern Approach to Construction As opposed to the traditional method where each step of the construction is done independent of each other, the modern methods of construction differ right from the approach to the construction process. The thinking process behind the site works is done well in advance, to allow much better coordination between the various trades involved. The planning stage will think of the proposed and future uses of the building. The design stage is the most important stage of construction as decisions taken at the design stage have the highest impact of performance, economy and many other factors. The approach to modern construction is one that takes sustainability and life-cycle cost of a building right from the onset of the design stage. Many factors can be influenced if thought is given at design stage. The following chapters will now introduce modern techniques used in construction that will result in more economic and sustainable construction in the housing sector. Steel Framed Buildings The use of steel is not new in construction. It has been used for over a century now. However, its full potential has only recently been understood. Steel has the potential to radically change the building and running cost of a building as well as having a major impact on issues such as sustainability, material demand, health and safety and so much more. Developments made over the past decade in steel construction have made it the most exciting material for construction. Steels Role in Sustainable Development Steel is a completely different material from concrete and masonry. It is first of all homogeneous as opposed to a mix and is much stronger. The UK steel construction industry in a very efficient industry and steel can be used to our advantage as a modern construction material for several reasons that will be unveiled below (SCI, 2004). More sustainable Design Good design is fundamental to sustainable construction (SCI, 2004). Decisions made at the initial design stage have the greatest effect on the overall sustainability impact of projects. Steels high strength-to-weight ratio is exploited in light structures which have low overall environmental impact and often require fewer and lighter foundations than alternative methods of construction. Its long-span capabilities create flexible spaces that facilitate changes in use during the life of the building, maximising letting potential and reducing refit costs. The energy associated with the occupation of buildings (operations energy) dominates that used in their manufacture and construction (embodied energy) typically by a factor of between 4 and 10 over a 60 year design life. Reducing operational energy consumption reduces environment impact as well as saving money. Steel frames and associated composite or other type of floor slab achieve high levels of fabric energy storage, which can significantly reduce the energy bill for cooling. Steel-based cladding systems for industrial buildings and light steel-framed residential construction provide well-insulated and airtight solutions. More sustainable manufacture and erection Construction can have significant social and environmental impacts such as noise, dust, ground and surface water pollution and traffic congestions (SCI, 2004).Steel provides the opportunity to maximise off-site construction techniques. Working in a factory under controlled conditions will definitely result in more accurate products and less waste. It also provides a safer and better working environment for the workers. Computer-sided design and manufacture can be put to best use in steel construction to eliminate defects and reworks and to minimise waste. Any steel waste is generally recovered and recycled. Cost, and therefore time, remain key drivers in construction. Steel construction allows us to build fast and reliably, with minimal time spent on site. The small amount of time spent on site has many impacts such as lower noise, less time for the workers to work as height, less noise and dust, less traffic and the whole community benefits. Less time spent on site also has the advantage of fewer interruptions due to weather, which is a very important factor in the UK, because our weather is world famous! As an example of what can be done (SCI, 2004), the 1600 tonnes of steelwork in the TNT Fastract distribution centre was erected in only 21 days! Sustainability in Use Designing a building for long life maximises the payback over the initial investment and is also a key aspect of sustainable construction. In that respect, refurbishment of a building to extend its life is very important. The versatility and flexibility of steel permits the owner of the building to easily modify and adapt to changing time without having to demolish and rebuild, thus extending the life of the building and getting the most value out of it. Steel is a stable product and if protected from the environment with paint, will require little maintenance and will not deteriorate at all with time. Cladding systems associated with steel construction are also easily modified and allow easy access for maintenance. With changing times, the requirements of a building change and therefore modifications may be necessary. Steel is easy to modify and to extend to suite new needs. Sustainability at end-of-life A concrete building only has a market value as a built-entity. The material itself can hardly be reused because it is cast-in. and cannot be dismantled. The best use of demolished concrete is land-fill. However, steel buildings have a material value even after construction. Because steel buildings consist of independently prepared members joined together by bolts, these members can be dismantled and re-used if the building is no longer required. For example, when the various Paris market halls built by Baltard in 1854 could no longer satisfy the needs of the city (ECCS, 2002), their function was transferred to Rungis, and the buildings replaced by the Centre Pompidou and the Forum. Recognising the need to preserve important architectural examples from the past one of the market halls was demounted and transferred to Nogent-sur-Marne, where it was simply reconstructed. It now accommodates cultural activities. The fact that a steel building can be demolished and rebuilt using the same structural members has far-reaching advantages. The immediate advantage that comes to mind is the market value of the building. Of course, a building has a value when it is in use. But with the use of steel, the building will have a value even after its life-span. The steel members can be sold as separate entities or the whole building can be sold to be built on a different site. This contributes enormously to the cost of redevelopment and therefore can be used to reduce the cost of housing. Looking at the bigger picture, re-using the same material for a new building implies that the natural resources that would have been required for the new building have been spared. Finally, even if the steel is not re-used directly as a construction material, it can always be recycled for new steel members. Steel is 100% recyclable material. Energy in Buildings In buildings, energy is required for: Space heating Domestic hot water heating Lighting Mechanical ventilation Air conditioning General electrical services such as lifts and escalators The quantities of each of the above required vary from place to place and from building to building. Space Heating In UK as in the rest of Europe, space heating is traditionally achieved by gas-powered or electric powered hot water boilers that distribute the hot water to radiators. The envelope of the building is designed to retain as much of that heat as possible to save on energy. However, there are several innovative techniques now available that are very efficient. New Glazing Technology There are new types of glazing that allow the solar heat to go into the building, but not out. Double glazing systems have been used for many years, but now the double-glazing makes use of special glasses. The gap in-between the glasses can be filled with special gases that promote the greenhouse effect. In some cases, simply evacuating the air from the gap works marvellously in acting as a smart glazing system. There are glasses that can be switched from clear to opaque by the action of current, heat, or naturally like sunglasses. New cladding materials used on the walls are translucent. They transmit light and solar energy but act as insulants.Interactive windows and shading system are computer-controlled to change the level of shading and ventilation at different times of the day to optimise energy use. Solar Heating Direct sunlight is used to warm buildings. But solar energy can be used indirectly as well. Solar water heaters are very popular in the Southern Hemisphere. In Europe and especially in Western Europe, people have the misconception that because of the cold climate, solar water heaters will not be effective. In fact, solar water heaters are very efficient even in cold regions. It is also very cheap to build or buy one. It can be used on large scale for schools and hospitals with large roof plans. So instead of boiling water in a gas or electric boiler, solar water heaters can be used. Even if in winter the solar water heater cannot produce sufficiently hot water, it can still be used to preheat the water supplied to the boilers. Thermal Mass In many countries, space heating is required at night more than during the day. In such cases, the mass of the building can be made to heat up during the day by the solar energy methods described above. This mass will absorb this energy during the day but will only start dissipating it after several hours. Concrete floors for example will have a typical time lag of nine hours. Proper use of this thermal mass can lead to very significant saving in energy. The orientation of the building can play a crucial part as well. For example, if the south face is the one that is most exposed to direct sunlight, having more massive walls on the south will improve on the use of thermal mass. Domestic Water Heating Domestic hot water is used in almost all buildings. Solar water heaters as described previously are generally very effective for domestic hot water. Other methods can also been used, depending on the location. If a village is situated not very far from a volcano, they can usually dig deep boreholes and pump the water to the bottom of the hole where the earth temperature is quite high. They can pump back the water and use it as domestic hot water. The concept is not a new one. Thermal spa and natural hot water baths have been used for centuries. Lighting The orientation of a building can be very important to make use of as much natural light as possible. Smart glazing systems discussed before are also very useful and are used more and more now. Lightwells and atria are also more and more used both for its help in natural lighting and ventilation, but also for its aesthetic contributions. When artificial lighting is required, special low-energy bulbs can be used that give the same amount of light but consume smaller amount of energy. Ventilation Natural ventilation has always been used in houses by simply opening and closing windows as required. Commercial buildings have however opted for more high-tech methods such as fans. These can be replaced by careful planning of the openings, of the way the floors are compartmented, and by the use of features such as atria. Also, computer-controlled openings are the high-tech version of manually opening and closing windows as required. Air Conditioning Cooling is always more expensive than heating. Not only does air conditioning consume a lot of energy; it also releases CFCs, which are harmful to the ozone layer. The use of these can be minimised as well. The use of ventilation can be used to improve the comfort level of occupants. The use of the thermal mass concept can also be used in the same way. The floors are cooled at night using natural ventilation, and during the day, they are used to cool the air inside the building. Conclusion The aim of the report was to propose and justify modern methods of construction. The report has exposed the necessity to shift to modern methods of construction. It is not just an option worth considering. It will soon be the only option and unless we as a company start the shift now, we will loose a competitive advantage. Among the modern methods mentioned, steel construction comes out to be the flagship of modern, economic and sustainable construction methods. Added to that, other means such as using thermal mass, natural ventilation and natural heating and cooling can be used in combination to wonderful effect. However, the most important point to remember is not the material or any particular technique. It is the approach and the thinking process required to meet the economic needs of the company, satisfy requirements from the government and other authorities and yet be able to produce affordable and high quality and high performance housing for the future. References Egan, Sir John, Rethinking Construction, Department of Trade and Industry, 1998 David Stern and Daniel Knapp, Reuse, Recycling, Refuse and the Local Economy: A Case Study of the Berkeley Serial MRF (documented by Urban Ore, Inc., and The Centre for Neighbourhood Technology: October, 1993). Boontra Chiel, Sun at Work in Europe, Vol. 12, No.1, March 1997, p3. Nicholls, Richard, Low Energy Design, Interface Publishing, 2002 European Commission for Constructional Steelwork, Merits of Steel, 2002 http://www.szs.ch/merits/vorwort_e.html Achieving Sustainable Construction: Guidance for clients and their professional Advisers, Steel Construction Institute, 2004

The Mask of Hamlet Essay -- Essays on Shakespeare Hamlet

The Mask of Hamlet  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚   When people put on a mask or costume it is usually because they are trying to hide themselves or portray a certain feeling to onlookers. In Shakespeare's Hamlet, Hamlet puts on a "antic disposition" as a strategy to get closer to Claudius. Hamlet tells his friends this by saying (I,iv,170-173) "how strange or odd some'er I bear myself (As I perchance hereafter shall think meet to put an antic disposition on), That you, at such times seeing me, never shall, with arms encumb'red thus, or this head-shake, or by pronouncing of some doubtful phrase," Hamlet's strategy is successful at the beginning in that he is able to fool Ophilia, Gertrude, Polonius and Claudius but as the play proceeds Polonius and Claudius began to see that there is logic behind his madness and actions. Toward the end Hamlets strategy becomes a tragic error when he begins to act solely on emotion instead of logic. In doing so he makes the mistake of killing Polonius instead of Claudius. Claudius then realize s that it would have been him dead instead of Polonius if he had been there. This scares Claudius in to trying to get rid of Hamlet any way he can. This explains the old saying "You can fool some of the people some of the time, but you can't fool all of the people all of the time."      Ã‚  Ã‚   Hamlet's reason for putting on his antic disposition is that he wants to fool Claudius into believing that he is fanatical and is no threat to him physically or to his anarchy. The reason for doing this is that Claudius secretly killed Old Hamlet, who was king to gain the thrown for himself. Hamlet after conversing with the ghost of his dead father learns that Claudius killed his father and swears revenge on Claudius. By Hamlet putting o... ...we mourn for" Claudius was not fooled for very long but at first he was sorry for, and was trying to help his past nephew now son get rid of his madness.      Ã‚  Ã‚   In conclusion Hamlet's plan did exactly what it was supposed to allow him to do. Hamlet shows really well the natural reaction to stressful situations by which he acts through emotion not logic. Hamlet would have been a exeptional king because of his logical thinking, but a short lived king because of his inability to act upon it.    Works Cited and Consulted: Bloom, Harold. Modern Critical Interpretations Of Hamlet. New York, NY: Chelsea House Publishers, 1986. Charney, Maurice. All of Shakespeare. New York, NY. Columbia University Press. 1993. Shakespeare, William. Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. The Riverside Shakespeare. ED. G. Blakemore Evans. Boston: Haughton Mifflin Company, 1974.

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy Essay

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is recommended by the NICE guidelines as an effective treatment for many mental health problems, specifically depression and all of the anxiety disorders. But is it a therapy open to all? When Professor Lord Layard wrote his paper: â€Å"Mental Health: Britain’s Biggest Social Problem? † in 2005, he noted that: â€Å"16% of adults of working age have a mental illness† Of these 16%, he stated that, only a quarter were utilising any type of treatment. It was this sort of finding that lead to his recommendation to increase accessibility to proven therapies such as CBT. This was achieved with the roll out of the Improved Access to Psychological Therapy (IAPT) programme. The diagram below shows how the IAPT programme has been divided up into 3 steps: It is this stepped approach that will contribute to overcoming some of the barriers that societies diversity may have with accessing CBT. What might these barriers be? One of the first barriers an individual faces may be around the concern of being stigmatised. It may be too hard for them to think about accessing CBT therapy for fear of what others may think. They may not want to take time off work to attend sessions for fear of it impacting negatively on their career prospects. The stepped care model means they are able to receive the lowest appropriate service tier support. This may mean that an individual is able to access therapy using guided self-help, allowing them to work through the programme in their own time and at their own pace. Online programmes such as â€Å"Fearfighter† and â€Å"Beating the Blues† allow the individual to access therapy where and when they like. Not only do these sort of programmes overcome the fear of stigma but they also overcome the issue of long waiting lists meaning that the individual can access treatment on their terms almost instantaneously. Only if this level of support proves unsuccessful will the individual then be â€Å"stepped up† to the high intensity support. These internet CBT programmes also overcome geographical difficulties, as long the individual has access to the internet and phone. In my opinion the internet is one of the main ways in which barriers may be removed. Morland et al (2011) conducted a study on the effectiveness of CBT delivered via video conferencing compared to the â€Å"traditional in-person†. The results indicated that the outcomes were just as effective. A promising move for those that are unable to access traditional CBT as a result of their location or possible mental health issue, for example those suffering agoraphobia. At the core of CBT is the individual’s motivation to learn and change. This in itself can lead to difficulties, especially in children and young people. Often this â€Å"group† is being taken to therapy rather than choosing to go. Hudson (2005) found that large numbers of youngsters were not responding to the CBT treatment that they were receiving. As far as children and young people are concerned there seems to have been limited research onto the success of CBT treatment. The first controlled trials did not take place until the early 1990s and the majority of research has focused on the impact of CBT on adults. Even so the NICE guidelines on Depression in Children and Young People recommended the use of CBT, firstly, rather than pharmacological interventions. So how has CBT been adapted to incorporate children and young people, whose very cognition and emotional stages differs from that of adults? There have been some creative adaptations to the CBT model such as â€Å"Think Good Feel good†. Here the concept of CBT is broken down into easy to manage bites. There is also a lot of use of cartoons and speech bubbles, allowing the young person to access their thoughts and feelings in a safe way. The need to use more non-verbal techniques to help the young person to engage in the process such as, storytelling, drawing and games is also highlighted in this book. O’Reilly et al (2009) have also developed an interesting approach to using CBT with children and young people. They have created a game called â€Å"gNAtenboroughs Island† which is played by the youngster alongside a therapist. Each session introduces another core CBT concept to the young person, such as the connection between thoughts, feelings and behaviours. These are presented in a non-threatening way and also a way that may be more engaging to this age group. Cerangolu (2010) found that video games could enhance the therapeutic experience. They could help facilitate the therapeutic relationship as young people may be more willing to relate to a therapist that is ready to engage and understand their normal way of playing. Also sitting side by side rather than at the conventional â€Å"ten to two† setting also may make the young person relax. How the game is played can also reveal the young person cognitive style. As technology develops so do the opportunities to engage young people in therapy. Apps for smartphones are constantly being developed that allow the young person to access their homework in a more user friendly way, to record their thoughts and emotions instantaneously. To allow them to engage in therapy in the same way that they engage in their life. Homework may be a part of CBT therapy that causes a young person to disengage, especially as the very word may cause them to have negative connotations. Gaynor et al (2006) found that compliance toward completing homework dropped the further into therapy a young person was. It is important that the therapist and client work together to agree the homework and that the young person is encouraged to set their own, as this may encourage a â€Å"buy in â€Å"to its importance. It may be that the therapist stays away from using the language of school and calls it â€Å"practise work† or â€Å"work for self†. Initially I saw CBT treatment as regimented and unmoving, but the more I have researched the barriers that different people may encompass when thinking of embarking on treatment the more I realise that CBT is indeed structured but there is an innate flexibility about how it is delivered. It is this flexibility that allows people from different backgrounds to engage in a CBT approach that sees them as an individual rather than specific disorder.

The United States Social Class, Race, Ethnicity, And Health

I. Introduction The American Medical Association (AMA) approximates that at least 25 cents of every dollar spent on health care in the U.S. is allocated to the management of diseases or debilities that stem from personal behaviors that can be changed by the individual (Andre et al)1. To what extent are people responsible for their own personal conduct and poor health decisions that result in serious yet avoidable illnesses and disabilities? Will charging people higher health insurance premiums help curb poor health habits? In Health Disparities in the United States: Social Class, Race, Ethnicity, and Health - Edition 1 by Donald Barr, the author explores the questions, â€Å"What is health? How should we define it? How should we measure it?† Barr addresses the â€Å"danger of approaching health as a moral imperative† and references Faith Fitzgerald, who points out the â€Å"tyranny of health†, where those who are unhealthy in some way are deemed to have behaved poorly. The author explains that people cannot be judged for their bad habits and resulting poor health2. Yet, in some cases, how can people not be held liable for their poor decisions? It is unfair to burden those citizens who make healthy lifestyle decisions with the health care costs of those who have made detrimental choices and behave in manners that create risks to their health and wellbeing. This essay will address voluntary health risks and preventable health care costs. People should be held reliable for theSh ow MoreRelatedThe United States : Social Class, Race, Ethnicity, And Health1447 Words   |  6 Pagesspent on health care in the U.S. is allocated to the management of diseases or debilities that stem from personal behaviors that can be changed by the individual (Andre et al)1. To what extent are people responsible for their own personal conduct and poor health decisions that result in serious, yet avoidable illnesses and disabilities? 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There’s something about asking those hard questions and discussing disparities as a result of oppressions and transgressions which made me uncomfortable to talk about race outside of the structured, politically-correct world of academiaRead MoreAfrican Americans The Face Of Poverty1461 Words   |  6 Pagesmore intense punishment than the rich or the white.† says a writer of the â€Å"why are African Americans the face of poverty in the United States (Why Are Black Americans the Face of Poverty in the United States? Is This View Supported by Evidence?).It s a serious question to ask. African Americans are usually represented as the lower class and in this case the main ethnicity dealing with poverty. They are used as the display of poverty programs and to show how poor people live.Government funded PovertyRead MoreInstitutional DIscrimination is Unjust716 Words   |  3 Pagesinstitutions based on gender, race, and social class with negative judgment. The negative judgments leads to the unjust treatment such as unequal payment, healthcare coverage and inaccurate stereotypes. In article, â€Å"Gender Gouging† from Multinational Monitor Magazine’s January/ February 2009 Edition, the unjust treatments of women compared to men is revealed. â€Å"†¦women on an average earn less than men to begin with, that they are more likely to face challenges paying for their health care,† (Multinational